Citizenship

During the French Revolution, the concept of citizenship underwent a significant transformation, reflecting an evolving understanding of individuals' roles and responsibilities within the nation. Prior to the Revolution, French society was organized into three estates: the clergy, the nobility, and the commoners. The privileges and rights of the clergy and the nobility contrasted starkly with the burdens borne by the commoners, leading to widespread discontent. The advent of the Revolution catalyzed the demand for equality, liberty, and fraternity.

The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, adopted on 26 August 1789 by the National Constituent Assembly, played a crucial role in redefining citizenship in revolutionary France. This document proclaimed that all men were born free and equal in rights. It outlined fundamental rights such as liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression. Moreover, the Declaration declared that sovereignty resided in the nation (as opposed to the monarch), thus emphasizing the importance of popular participation in governance.

The Constitution of 1791 further solidified the concept of active citizenship. This constitution distinguished between 'active' and 'passive' citizens. Active citizens, defined as men over the age of 25 who paid a certain amount of taxes (approximately three days' wages), were granted the right to vote and hold public office. In contrast, passive citizens (including women, servants, and those unable to meet the tax requirement) were granted civil rights but excluded from political participation. This distinction aimed to ensure that only those with a vested economic interest in the nation could influence governmental decisions.

Subsequent revolutionary developments saw a continued evolution in the idea of citizenship. The radical period of the Revolution, particularly during the rule of the National Convention (1792-1795), embraced more egalitarian principles. The abolition of the monarchy and the establishment of the French Republic on 22 September 1792 ushered in changes. Universal male suffrage was briefly introduced, allowing all men to vote regardless of their economic status. This period also witnessed a surge in the use of the term 'citizen' as a form of address, symbolizing the break from hierarchical titles and promoting republican values.

The Thermidorian Reaction and the establishment of the Directory (1795-1799) somewhat curtailed these democratic experiments. The constitution of 1795 reinstated property-based voting qualifications, thereby limiting the political influence of the poorer classes once more. The complex interplay of revolutionary ideals and pragmatic governance often resulted in fluctuating definitions of citizenship throughout the Revolution.

Women's citizenship remained a contentious issue throughout the period. Despite the universalistic language of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, women were excluded from political rights. Women like Olympe de Gouges protested this exclusion. She authored the Declaration of the Rights of Woman and of the Female Citizen in 1791, advocating for women's full legal equality and political participation. Nevertheless, the revolutionary assemblies did not implement such measures, thereby maintaining the political disenfranchisement of women.

The French Revolution's discourse on citizenship laid the groundwork for modern democratic principles. The tensions between inclusivity and exclusivity, as well as the evolving approaches to defining political participation, reflected broader struggles within the revolutionary quest for liberty, equality, and fraternity.

• The concept of citizenship evolved significantly during the French Revolution, transitioning from a privilege of the nobility to a universal right for all men, although women and enslaved people remained excluded during this period.
• In 1791, the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen was adopted, which established that 'men are born and remain free and equal in rights' (a radical departure from the previous feudal and monarchic systems).
• The French Revolution introduced the term 'active citizens,' referring to males who paid a certain amount in taxes and thus had voting rights; whereas 'passive citizens' could not vote, reflecting class distinctions in political participation.
• The revolutionary government sought to create a new civic identity, promoting ideas of patriotism and civic duty, exemplified by the establishment of annual civic festivals celebrating the nation.
• Citizenship was tied to the notion of virtue; it was believed that only virtuous citizens could protect and uphold the republic, leading to significant political purges during the Reign of Terror (1793-1794).
• Women played a pivotal role in advocating for citizens' rights, leading to influential political clubs such as the Society of Revolutionary Republican Women; however, they were officially denied citizenship rights and political participation by 1793.